Goal-based Scenarios by Brian Clark

Theoretical basis:

Goal-based scenarios (GBS) can best be defined as "a learn-by-doing simulation approach that encourages learners to pursue goals using assistance and guidance provided by the interactive system" (Hsu & Moore, 2010, p. 58). GBS is what many people would call a "learn-by-doing" strategy that focuses students on key target skills that are taught through real-life problem solving scenarios. As such, GBS falls under the branch of Constructivist learning theory. Constructivist learning theory is highlighted by the belief that learning happens when students are able to construct their own meaning of new topics by connecting them back to past experiences. GBS models share many of the same characteristics as those found in Constructivist theory. For example, for a GBS model to be effective, students must be presented with a real-world scenario, where they are expected to use realistic approaches to solve complex problems. Additionally, in the GBS model of instruction, the teacher is merely a facilitator or, "guide-on-the-side", and plays the role of exposing the students to their goal then letting them discover the best way to solve it. A more thorough discussion on the characteristics of Constructivism can be found here:

http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emurphy/stemnet/cle3.html

Process for developing a GBS:

To further understand how a GBS connects to Constructivism, and how it can lead students to a deeper comprehension of the desired learning, it is beneficial to look at the essential features of a quality GBS. As is described here, there are seven essential features of a GBS, further described below:

1. Learning Goals: well-defined goals are necessary to help students understand what they are going to be connecting to prior knowledge. This should include the target skills they are expected to learn.
2. Mission: what are the students going to accomplish? Should be a real-world scenario and be relevant to the students' backgrounds. 
3. Cover Story: Sets the stage for the mission. Why do the students need to accomplish this task? What is the need for this mission?
4. Role: Identifies the character that the student will take on.
5. Scenario Operations: this is where you describe the exact steps students need to take in order to complete their mission.
6. Resources: this will contain a list of resources students will need to in order to complete their mission.
7. Feedback: Reflective feedback provided by teacher on how students accomplished learning goals/target skills. 

By connecting the learning goals/target skills to relevant, real-life scenarios, students can form solid connections in their heads between stuff they already knew and information they are expected to learn. The model forces students to be the driving force behind their own learning and not rely on a teacher merely introducing the facts to them and expecting them to recall them later. As stated before, the students will be required to access knowledge of previous skills to complete the mission presented to them, all of which is a key characteristic of Constructivist learning theory. 

Based on the information found at engines4ed.org, there is fairly straight forward process for designing a GBS. The process can be followed as such:

1. Identifying target skills: the instructor first needs to identify what skills they want the students to acquire by the end of the task. These skills should be relevant to the role the students are expected to take. For example, if the students are taking on the role of a political scientist and their mission is to analyze the impact of debate performances on polling numbers, the target skills they are expected to achieve could be recognizing bias, understanding propaganda, analyzing the role of the media, etc. The target skills are not meant for facts or content, but more for skills they students may need once they leave K-12 education.
2. Developing a mission requiring the target skills: the mission needs to be explicit in it's goal and incorporate multiple skills in order to have a successful GBS. The mission should not be a skill, but should motivate students to use multiple skills to achieve success in their task. 
3. Choose a focus: within this step, the instructor is choosing what type of process the students will follow in order to achieve their mission. Are the students designing campaign propaganda? Are they discovering the bias implicit in human nature and prevalent in politics? Etc. The focus should tell you and your students what kind of task they are going to be completing. 
4. Create a cover story: developing a significant cover story gives the students context to their mission and connects the target skills to prior knowledge. The cover story will help students identify why they need to accomplish their task, yet also give them insight into the significance of the target skills they are expected to acquire.
5. Plan the scenario operations: This gives the students clear, step-by-step directions on how to complete their mission. Can include such things as whether or not they are working in groups, the resources they are expected to utilize, what type of assessment will they need to achieve to prove their comprehension, etc. 
6. Build a learning environment to support the target skills: This last step is much more of a reflection step for the instructor than anything else. If the guidelines above were followed and the GBS was designed with care, this step is fairly easy to accomplish. Teachers should make sure that their design has supported the target skills sufficiently and make adjustments as needed. 

Example of a GBS at work:

The Economic Advisor: In this lesson, students will take part in a research based, group paper where the students will take on the role of an economic advisor to the President of the United States. The key target skills they will work towards acquiring include the analysis of collected data, research methods, and connecting data to real-world experiences.

Learning goals: This GBS is designed to teach students about the impact of key macroeconomic data and how that data is analyzed and interpreted. The students will know what changes in Gross Domestic Product, Unemployment, and Inflation mean to our economy and public policy.

Mission: The mission for the students is to interpret macroeconomic data and provide a policy recommendation to the President that could potentially have a huge national impact.

Cover Story: The cover story explains to the students that they have been appointed to the Council of Economic Advisers, the main group of economist who advise the President, and have been asked by the President to provide him with a policy recommendation. The students will be required to back up their recommendation with key macroeconomic data they have collected and then present their findings to the President in the form of a PowerPoint and a paper compiled as a group.

Role: Students will take on the role of an economic policy adviser to the President.

Scenario Operations: Students will use two websites to compile their data: http://www.bls.gov/ and http://www.bea.gov/. Students will be required to compile data on Gross Domestic Product, Unemployment, and Inflation to argue for the recommendation they make to the President. Students will use Google Docs to develop a well-designed essay. Lastly, students will create a PowerPoint to present a concise version of their recommendation to the President (aka the class).

Resources: Listed within the operation, students will use two sites: http://www.bls.gov/ & http://www.bea.gov/. Students will also need access to a Chromebook & Google Drive. Within Google Drive, students will use Docs and Presentation to complete their assignment. Students will then need access to a projector in order to display their presentation to the class.

Feedback: Students will be provided feedback by their peers and the instructor. Students will be able to provide feedback to each other within their collaborative effort to create and paper. The instructor will have access to all Google Docs and Presentations and will be able to provide feedback throughout the development process.

Reference List

Hsu, C.Y. & Moore, D.R. (2010). An Example Implementation of Schank's Goal-Based Scenarios.      TechTrends, 54 (1), 58-61.  Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.nu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?  sid=fde2c65f-d9cb-4e83-b419-3bb4bfa584cb%40sessionmgr110&vid=1&hid=124

Instructional Design: Goal-based Scenarios. (n.d.). Retrieved October 8, 2015 from Learning  Theories Wiki: http://teorije-ucenja.zesoi.fer.hr/doku.php?  id=instructional_design:goal_based_scenarios

Schank, R. Engines for Education. [Web log post]. Retrieved  from http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-233-pg.html

Collaborative Learning by Morgan Ward

Collaborative Learning is an instructional model within the social family of teaching models, and is based in the Constructivist Learning Theory.  The collaborative learning model is rooted in the idea that learning and knowledge are socially constructed.

Family Tree of Collaborative Learning

The overarching learning theory behind collaborative learning is Constructivism.  Harasim (2012) stated, “Constructivist theory posits that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing the world, and reflecting on those experiences” (p. 60).  The work of swiss psychology professor Jean Piaget puts forth four stages of human development in which children are able to construct more complex forms of knowledge.  See a description of the stages below and click here for more information regarding Constructivism.

Collaborative learning belongs to the social family of teaching models.  These models, “emphasize our social nature, how we learn social behavior, and how social interaction can enhance academic learning” (Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun, 2015, p. 229).  The work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who is strongly associated with Constructivism, particularly emphasizes the role of social interactions in leading children to developing higher cognitive abilities.  Vygotsky created the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which postulates that, “learning takes place when learners solve problems beyond their actual developmental level - but within their level of potential development - under guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Harasim, 2012, p. 67).  Collaborative learning is influenced by the ZPD as students work together to solve problems and construct knowledge.

Basic Principles of Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning should not be confused with cooperative learning, in which students contribute to a product independently.  Students are collaboratively learning when they are interacting throughout the process of the lesson to create a finished product together.  Cornell University’s Center for Teaching Excellence provides four basic principles of collaborative learning.  They are as follows:

• instruction is focused on the learner
• learner interactions and creations are the primary goals
• learning to work in groups is important
• opportunities for solving real-world problems should be provided

Collaborative learning is usually implemented between students, but can also include collaboration between the student and teacher.  Collaboration typically occurs in small groups consisting of three to five students.  Collaboration can also occur between the whole class in social activities such as debates or socratic seminars.   

Practical Examples of Collaborative Learning

A simple and classic example of collaborative learning that the majority of educators are familiar with is Think Pair Share (TPS).  During a TPS the teacher first presents a challenging question to the class.  Students are given think time to begin formulating a solution.  Then, students collaborate with a partner or small group to refine their answers, and finally share out for a whole class discussion. Watch the short video below to see an example of collaborative learning in action.

The Google Apps for Education suite is a free and practical resource for teachers looking to incorporate more collaborative learning in their classroom.  The apps (such as Google Docs, Slides, and Drawings) allow students to collaborate digitally.  Students can all work on the same file simultaneously using their own devices, whether they are in the same classroom or across the world.  Even better, the teacher has access as well and can provide constant feedback throughout the process.  Check out TeacherTech for unlimited inspiration and resources on collaborative learning with Google Apps.

References

Collaborative Learning: Group Work. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.cte.cornell.edu/teaching-ideas/engaging-students/collaborative-learning.html 

Constructivism Learning Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/ 

Harasim, L. (2012). Learning theory and online technologies. New York, NY: Routledge.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2015). Models of teaching (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development: A Closer Look. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11, 2015. 

Using Think, Pair, Share-Primary. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YchexU5NVNA 

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext (Jonathan Kunz)

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

“Educators in the past pioneered the use of media as a way of accepting the challenge to improve methods of instruction, be they in the teaching of languages or content subjects” (Shih & Alessi, 1996).

Cognitive flexibility is “a powerful theoretical framework for designing hypermedia-based learning materials” (Borsook & Higgenbotham-Wheat, 1992).  Cognitive Flexibility theory is "specifically formulated to support the use of interactive technology (e.g., videodisc, hypertext). Its primary applications have been literary comprehension, history, biology and medicine" (Instructional Design, 2015).

Cognitive Flexibility allows students to (CBIRT, 2015):

• Interpret information in multiple ways
• Change approaches
• Select a new strategy if the first one isn’t working

7 Models of Cognitive Flexibility in Designing Hypertext:

• Cases and rich examples.
• Multiple forms of knowledge representation (via multiple perspectives).
• Linking of abstract concepts to case examples (explicit discussion of themes and concepts across cases).
• Demonstrate conceptual and thematic variability in ill-structured domains (criss crossing navigation of cases via themes).
• Interrelated and web-like nature of knowledge (variable thematic links across cases).
• Knowledge assembly from different conceptual/thematic and case sources (thematic linking across cases).
• Promote active learning (provisions for learner control of navigation paths).

Cognitive Flexibility Theory-Megan Perry

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext (CFH) is a "hypermedia learning environment that allows 'multiple juxtapositions of instructional content' through a large and complex conceptual structure" (Spiro et al. p. 65 in Duffy & Jonassen).

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext is part of the Constructivism family. Harasim mentions that "Constructivist theory posits that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through our experiences and reflecting on these experiences through the process of asking questions, exploring, engaging in dialogue with others and reassessing what we know" (2012, p. 60).  We are "creators and constructors of our own knowledge" (Harasim, 2012, p. 60). 

1. Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content.
2. Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content domain and support context-dependent knowledge.
3. Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledge construction, not transmission of information.
4. Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than compartmentalized.

Hypertext

• Concept originated in 1960s
• Ted Nelson
• Database Management System (DBMS)
• An idea of what technology (i.e., computers) could do with written word (Nelson, 1974)
• Precursor and inspiration of the World Wide Web (Harasim, 2012, p. 23)

Hypermedia

• Multimedia aspect of the hypertext system
• Typical Media: text, graphic, video, sounds

Related Theories: Constructivism & Genetic Epistomology

Bruner's Constructivism

"Bruner's theory on constructivism encompasses the idea of learning as an active process wherein those learning are able to form new ideas based on what their current knowledge is as well as their past knowledge" (Teachnology, 2012). 

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). 

Piaget's Genetic Epistemology

"The study of the origins (genesis) of knowledge (epistemology), a study that involves cognitive developmental psychology and explains how humans develop cognitively from birth throughout life" (Jean-Piaget, 2015). 

Children acquire three kinds of knowledge (Jean-Piaget, 2015):

• Physical Knowledge (knowledge about their environment).
• Logical-Mathematical knowledge (the ability to think in an abstract, or problem solving way)
• Social-arbitrary knowledge (knowledge on how to interact appropriately with others, in order to fit in).

Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean-Piaget, 2015):

• Sensorimotor - Birth to age 2,
• Preoperational - Age 2 to age 7,
• Concrete Operational - Age 7 to age 11 &
• Formal Operational - Age 11 to Adulthood.

Example

Jonassen, Ambruso & Olesen provide an example where students are "presented with a variety of clinical cases which they must diagnose and treat using various sources of information available (including advice from experts), the learning environment presents multiple perspectives on the content, is complex and ill-defined, and emphasizes the construction of knowledge by the learner (1992).

Other Relevant Links:

Web-Based Learning Framework on Mapping Instructional Strategies to Web Features

Instructional Design Models And Theories: The Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro, Feltovitch & Coulson)

References

Borsook, T.K. and Higginbotham-Wheat, N., (1992, February). A psychology of hypermedia: A conceptual framework for R & D. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Educational Communications Technology. Washington, DC.

Bruner's Theory on Constructivism. (2012). Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.teachnology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/bruner/

Executive Function Strategies for Cognitive Flexibility. (2015). Retrieved October 10, 2015, from http://cbirt.org/tbi-education/executive-functions/executive-function-strategies-cognitive-flexibility/

Genetic Epistemology. (2015). Retrieved October 11, 2015, from https://jean-piaget.wikispaces.com/Genetic Epistemology

Harasim, L. (2012). Learning Theory and Online Technologies. Milton Park: Routledge.

Jonassen, D., Ambruso, D . & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(3), 309-322.

Nelson, Theodor H. (1974). _Dream Machines/Computer Lib_. Chicago: Nelson/Hugo's Book Service [republished 1987, Redmond, WA: Tempus]

Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility,constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.). Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Shih, Y., & Alessi, S. (1996). Effects of text versus voice on learning in multimedia courseware. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2), 203-218.